Roman Republic
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The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a republican form of government. The republican period began with the overthrow of the Monarchy c. 509 BC and lasted over 450 years until its subversion, through a series of civil wars, into the Principate form of government and the Imperial period.
The Roman Republic was governed by a complex constitution, which centered on the principles of a separation of powers and checks and balances. The evolution of the constitution was heavily influenced by the struggle between the aristocracy and the average Roman. Early in its history, the republic was controlled by an aristocracy of individuals who could trace their ancestry back to the founding of the republic. Over time, the laws that allowed these individuals to dominate the government were repealed, and the result was the emergence of a new aristocracy which depended on the structure of society, rather than the law, to maintain its dominance. Thus, only a revolution could overthrow this new aristocracy. Rome also saw its territory expand during this period, from central Italy to the entire Mediterranean world. During the first two centuries, Rome expanded to the point of dominating Italy. During the next century, Rome grew to dominate North Africa, Spain, Greece, and what is now southern France. During the last two centuries of the Roman Republic, Rome grew to dominate the rest of modern France, as well as much of the east. By this point, however, its republican political machinery was finally crushed under the weight of imperialism.
The precise event which signaled the transition of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire is a matter of interpretation. Historians have variously proposed the appointment of Julius Caesar as perpetual dictator (44 BC), the Battle of Actium (2 September 31 BC), and the Roman Senate's grant of Octavian's extraordinary powers under the first settlement (January 16, 27 BC), as candidates for the defining pivotal event.
The Constitution of the Roman Republic
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Main articles: Roman Constitution and Constitution of the Roman Republic
Much of what is known about the Constitution of the Roman Republic comes to us from the Greek historian Polybius. According to Polybius, the senate was the predominate branch of government. Polybius noted that it was the consuls who lead the armies and the civil government in Rome[2], and it was the legislative assemblies which had the ultimate authority over elections, legislation and criminal trials. However, since the senate controlled money, administration, and the details of foreign policy, it had the most control over day-to-day life.[3][4]
The Senate
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Main article: Senate of the Roman Republic
The senate's ultimate authority (auctoritas) derived from the esteem and prestige of the senate.[5] This esteem and prestige was based on both precedent and custom (mos maiorum, or "customs of the ancestors"), as well as the high caliber and prestige of the senators.[6] The senate passed decrees, which were called senatus consultum. This was officially "advice" from the senate to a magistrate. In practice, however, these were usually obeyed by the magistrates.[7] The focus of the Roman senate was directed towards foreign policy.[3] While its role in military conflict was officially advisory, the senate was ultimately the force that oversaw those conflicts. The relationship was effectively one of agency, rather than independence. The consuls would have formal command over the armies. However, the consular command of those armies was directed by the senate. The senate managed the civil administration in the city. For example, only the senate could authorize the appropriation of public monies from the treasury.[3] In addition, the senate would try individuals accused of political crimes (such as treason).[3]
Legislative Assemblies
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Main article: Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic
According to Polybius, it was the People of Rome (and thus the assemblies) who had the final say regarding the election of magistrates[8], the enactment of new laws[9], the carrying out of capital punishment[8], the declaration of war and peace, and the creation (or dissolution) of alliances[8]. Under the Constitution of the Roman Republic, the people (and thus the assemblies) held the ultimate source of sovereignty.[10] There were two types of legislative assemblies. The first was the comitia ("committee"). [11] Comitia were assemblies of all citizens (populus Romanus, or "People of Rome").[12] The second type of assembly was the concilium ("council"). Concilium were forums where specific groups of people would meet for an official purpose (such as to enact a law).[12]
Assembly of the Centuries
Citizens were organized on the basis of centuries and tribes (for civil purposes). The Comitia Centuriata ("Century Assembly") was the assembly of the centuries (centuriae). The president of the Comitia Centuriata was usually a consul[2]. The 193 centuries[13] in the Comitia Centuriata were divided into three different grades. These were the equites, pedites and unarmed adjuncts.[14][13] The pedites were divided amongst five classes. The centuries in each class would vote, one at a time by seniority, until the entire class had voted. When a measure received a majority of the vote, the voting would end. The Comitia Centuriata would elect magistrates who had imperium powers (consuls and praetors). It also elected censors. Only the Comitia Centuriata could declare offensive war.[15] The Comitia Centuriata could also pass a law that would grant imperium to consuls and praetors, and censorial powers to censors.[15] The Comitia Centuriata also served as the highest court of appeal in certain judicial cases.[16] In addition, it was this assembly that ratified the results of a census.[17]
Assembly of the Tribes
During the years of the Roman Republic, the tribes would gather into two different assemblies. These two assemblies were the Concilium Plebis (the "Plebeian Council") and the Comitia Tributa (the "Tribal Assembly"). In effect, the Concilium Plebis was an "Assembly of the Plebeian Tribes", while the Comitia Tributa was an "Assembly of the Patricio-Plebeian Tribes".[18] The only difference between the two assemblies was that patricians could not vote in the Plebeian Tribal Assembly (i.e. the Concilium Plebis or "Plebeian Council"). Since patricians were excluded, the Plebeian Tribal Assembly did not constitute the entire populus Romanus ("People of Rome"). The Plebeian Tribal Assembly elected their own officers (plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles). The Comitia Tributa (Patricio-Plebeian Tribal Assembly), in contrast, was presided over by a consul[2]. Other than the fact that the Concilium Plebis (Plebeian Tribal Assembly) excluded patricians, and thus was presided over by a plebeian officer, it was identical to the Comitia Tributa (Patricio-Plebeian Tribal Assembly).
The two tribal assemblies were composed of thirty-five blocks known as "tribes". The tribes were not ethnic or kinship groups. Tribal divisions were geographical.[19] The order that the thirty-five tribes would vote in was selected randomly by lot.[20] Once a majority of tribes had voted the same way, voting would end. Most laws were passed by the Plebeian Tribal Assembly (the Concilium Plebis). While the Comitia Tributa did not pass many laws, it did elect quaestors, curule aediles, and military tribunes.[21].
Executive Magistrates
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Main article: Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic
Each magistratus was vested with a degree of maior potestas ("major powers").[22] Each magistrate could only veto an action that was taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of maior potestas. Thus, no magistrate could veto an act of the senate or assemblies (since neither institution possessed any maior potestas). Since plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles were technically not magistrates,[23] they were outside of the maior potestas standard. In general, this made them independent of the other magistrates.[2][22] Tribunes relied on the sacrosanctity of their person to obstruct. If a magistrate, an assembly or the senate did not comply with the orders of a tribune, the tribune could 'interpose the sacrosanctity of his person' [24] (intercessio) to physically stop that particular action. Any resistance against the tribune would be tantamount to a violation of his sacrosanctity, and thus would be considered a capital offense.
Any magistrate could obstruct ("veto") an action that was being taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of maior potestas. If this obstruction occurred between two magistrates with equal maior potestas (such as two praetors), then it would be called par potestas.[25] To prevent this, magistrates used a principle of alteration, assigned responsibilities by lot or seniority, or gave certain magistrates control over certain functions.[26] If this obstruction occurred against a magistrate with a lower degree of maior potestas it would be called intercessio.[25] In this case, the higher ranking magistrate would interpose his higher maior potestas.
Magisterial powers, and checks on those powers
Each republican magistrate held certain constitutional powers (potestas). Only the People of Rome (both plebeians and patricians) had the right to confer potestas on any individual magistrate.[27] The most powerful form of potestas was imperium. Imperium was held by both consuls and praetors. Imperium gave a magistrate the authority to command a military force. All magistrates had the power of coercitio (coercion). Coercitio was used by magistrates to maintain public order.[28] While in Rome, all citizens had an absolute protection against coercitio. This protection was called provocatio (see below). Magistrates also had both the power and the duty to look for omens (auspicia). The auspices would often be used to obstruct (obnuntiatio) political opponents.
One check over a magistrate's power was collega (collegiality). Each magisterial office would be held concurrently by at least two people. Another check over the power of a magistrate was provocatio. Provocatio was a primordial form of due process. It was a precursor to our own habeas corpus. If any magistrate was attempting to use the powers of the state against a citizen, that citizen could appeal the decision of the magistrate to a tribune.[29] An additional check over a magistrate's power was that of provincia. Provinicia required a division of responsibilities.[30] In addition, once a magistrate's annual term in office expired, he would have to wait ten years before serving in that office again. Since this did create problems for some magistrates, these magistrates would occasionally have their imperium "prorogued" (prorogare). In effect, they would retain the powers of the office (as a promagistrate), without officially holding that office.[31]
Consuls, praetors, censors, aediles, quaestors, tribunes, and dictators
The consul of the Roman Republic was the highest ranking ordinary magistrate[2][32]. Throughout the year, one consul would be superior in rank to the other consul. To prevent par potestas, this ranking would flip every month, between the two consuls.[33] Consuls had supreme power in both civil and military matters. While in the city of Rome, the superior consul for the month was the head of the Roman government.[2] The management of the government would be under the ultimate authority of that consul. He would also preside over the senate, the Comitia Centuriata, and the Comitia Tributa.[2][34] While abroad, each consul would command an army.[2][34] His authority would be nearly absolute.[2]
Praetors would administer civil law[35] and command provincial armies. Every five years, two censors would be elected for an eighteen month term. During their term in office, the two censors would conduct a census. During the census, they could enroll citizens in the senate, or purge them from the senate.[36] Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome. Aediles had wide ranging powers over day-to-day affairs inside the city of Rome.[37]. The quaestors would usually assist the consuls in Rome, and the governors in the provinces. Their duties were often financial. Since the tribunes were considered to be the embodiment of the plebeians, they were sacrosanct[38]. Their sacrosanctity was enforced by a pledge, taken by the plebeians, to kill any person who harmed or interfered with a tribune during his term of office. All of the powers of the tribune derived from their sacrosanctity. One obvious consequence of this sacrosanctity was the fact that it was considered a capital offense to harm a tribune, to disregard his veto, or to interfere with a tribune[38]. In times of military emergency, a dictator would be appointed for a term of six months[39]. Constitutional government would dissolve, and the dictator would become the absolute master of the state.[40] When the dictator's term ended, constitutional government would be restored.
Political history of the Roman Republic
The constitutional history of the Roman Republic can be divided into five phases. The first phase began with the revolution which overthrew the monarchy in 510 BC. The final phase ended with the revolution which overthrew the Roman Republic, and thus created the Roman Empire, in 27 BC. Throughout the history of the republic, the constitutional evolution was driven by the struggle between the aristocracy and the ordinary citizens.
The patrician era (509-367 BC)
According to legend, the last king was overthrown in 510 BC. While this story is nothing more than a legend which later Romans created in order to explain their past, it is likely that Rome had been ruled by a series of kings.[41] The historical monarchy, as the legends suggest, was probably overthrown quickly. The constitutional changes which occurred immediately after the revolution were probably not as extensive as the legends suggest. The most important constitutional change probably concerned the chief executive. Before the revolution, a king (rex) would be elected by the senators (patres or "fathers") for a life term. Now, two consuls were elected by the citizens for an annual term.[41] Each consul would check his colleague, and their limited term in office would open them up to prosecution if they abused the powers of their office. His political powers, when exercised conjointly with his colleague, were no different from those of the old king.[42] In the immediate aftermath of the revolution, the senate and the assemblies were as powerless as they had been under the monarchy.
In the year 494 BC, the city was at war with two neighboring tribes.[43] The plebeian soldiers refused to march against the enemy, and instead seceded (secessio) to the Aventine hill. The plebeians demanded the right to elect their own officials. The patricians agreed, and the plebeians returned to the battlefield.[43] The plebeians would call these new officials "plebeian tribunes". The tribunes would have two assistants, called "plebeian aediles". In 367 BC, the tribunes C. Licinius Stolo and L. Sextius passed a law called the lex Satura.[44] This law required the election of at least one plebeian consul each year. In 443 BC, the censorship was created[45], and in 366 BC, the praetorship was created. Also in 366 BC, the curule aedileship was created.[45] Shortly after the founding of the republic, the Comitia Centuriata became the principle legislative assembly. In the Comitia Centuriata, magistrates were elected, and laws were passed. During the fourth century BC, a series of reforms were passed. The result of these reforms was that any law passed by the Concilium Plebis (the Plebeian Tribal Assembly) would have the full force of law. This gave the tribunes (who presided over the Concilium Plebis) a positive character for the first time. Before these laws were passed, tribunes could only interpose the sacrosanctity of their person (intercessio) to veto acts of the senate, assemblies or magistrates.
The Conflict of the Orders (367-287 BC)
After the plebeian aedileship had been created, the patricians created the curule aedileship.[46] At first the curule aedileship was only open to patricians, but the office was eventually opened to plebeians. After the consulship had been opened to the plebeians, the plebeians acquired a de facto right to hold both the dictatorship and the censorship (since only former consuls could hold either office). In 337 BC, the first plebeian praetor was elected.[47] In 342 BC, two significant laws were passed. One of these two laws made it illegal to hold more than one office at any given point in time. The other law required an interval of ten years to pass before any magistrate could seek reelection to any office.[48] During these years, the tribunes and the senators grew increasingly close.[49] The senate realized the need to use plebeian officials to accomplish desired goals.[49] To win over the tribunes, the senators gave the tribunes a great deal of power. Ultimately, the tribunes began to feel obligated to the senate. As the tribunes and the senators grew closer, plebeian senators were often able to secure the tribunate for members of their own families.[50] In time, the tribunate would become a stepping stone to higher office.[50]
Around the middle of the fourth century BC, the Concilium Plebis enacted the plebiscitum Ovinium.[51] During the early republic, the consuls would appoint new senators. The Ovinian law, however, gave this power to the censors. It also required the censor to appoint any newly-elected magistrate to the senate.[51] By this point, plebeians were already holding a significant number of magisterial offices. Thus, the number of plebeian senators probably increased quickly.[52] Under the new system, magistrates would be awarded with automatic membership in the senate. However, it remained difficult even for a plebeian to enter the senate, if he wasn't from a political family.[52] Ultimately, a new patricio-plebeian aristocracy (nobilitas) emerged.[52] The old nobility existed through the force of law, because only patricians were allowed to stand for high office. Now, however, the new nobility existed due to the organization of society. As such, only a revolution could overthrow this new nobility.[53]
By 287 BC, the economic condition of the average plebeian had become poor. The problem appears to have centered around wide-spread indebtedness.[54] The plebeians demanded relief, but the senators refused to address their situation. The result was the final plebeian secession. The plebeians seceded to the Janiculum hill. To end the secession, a dictator was appointed. The dictator passed a law (the lex Hortensia), which ended the requirement that an auctoritas patrum ("authority of the patrician senators") be passed before any bill could be considered by either the Concilium Plebis or the Comitia Tributa.[54] The lex Hortensia was not the first law to require that an act of the Concilium Plebis have the full force of law.[55] The Concilium Plebis acquired this power during a modification to the original Valerian law in 449 BC.[55] The ultimate significance of this law was in the fact that it robbed the patricians of their final weapon over the plebeians. The result was that the ultimate control over the state fell, not onto the shoulders of the democracy, but onto the shoulders of the new patricio-plebeian nobility.[56]
The plebeians had finally achieved political equality with the patricians.[53] However, the plight of the average plebeian had not changed. Now, a small number of plebeian families had achieved the same standing that the old aristocratic patrician families had always had. As such, these new plebeian aristocrats became as uninterested in the plight of the average plebeian as the old patrician aristocrats had always been.[53]
The supremacy of the new nobility (287-133 BC)
The great accomplishment of the lex Hortensia was in that it deprived the patricians of their last weapon over the plebeians. Thus, the last great political question of the earlier era had been resolved. As such, no important political changes would occur between 287 BC and 133 BC.[57] This entire era was dominated by foreign wars. When the lex Hortensia was enacted into law, Rome theoretically became a democracy. In reality, however, Rome remained an oligarchy. The critical laws were still enacted by the senate.[58] In effect, democracy was satisfied with the possession of power, but did not care to use it. The senate was supreme during this era because the era was dominated by questions of foreign policy.[59]
The final decades of this era saw a worsening economic situation for many plebeians.[60] The long military campaigns had forced citizens to leave their farms. Their farms would then fall into a state of disrepair. This situation was made worse during the Second Punic War, when Hannibal fought the Romans throughout Italy. The landed aristocracy began buying bankrupted farms at discounted prices. The result was a rapid decline in commodity prices. As these prices fell, many farmers could no longer operate their farms at a profit.[60] The result was the ultimate bankruptcy of countless farmers. Masses of unemployed plebeians soon began to flood into Rome, and thus into the ranks of the legislative assemblies. Their economic state usually led them to vote for the candidate who offered the most for them. A new culture of dependency was emerging, which would look to any populist leader for relief.[61]
From the Gracchi to Caesar: (133-49 BC)
The prior era saw great military successes, and great economic failures. The patriotism of the plebeians had kept them from seeking any new reforms. Now, the military situation had stabilized, and fewer soldiers were needed. This, in conjunction with the new slaves that were being imported from abroad, inflamed the unemployment situation further. The flood of unemployed citizens to Rome had made the assemblies quite populist. The ultimate result was an increasingly aggressive democracy.
The Gracchi tribunates
Tiberius Gracchus was elected tribune in 133 BC. He attempted to reenact a clause of the old Licinian law, which had never been enforced. This would have limited the amount of land that any individual could own. The aristocrats, who stood to lose an enormous amount of money, were bitterly opposed to this proposal. Tiberius submitted this law to the Concilium Plebis, but the law was vetoed by a tribune named Marcus Octavius. Tiberius used the Concilium Plebis to impeach Octavian. The theory, that a representative of the people ceases to be one when he acts against the wishes of the people, was repugnant to the genius of Roman constitutional theory.[62] If carried to its logical end, this theory would remove all constitutional restraints on the popular will, and put the state under the absolute control of a temporary popular majority.[62] His law would be enacted, but Tiberius would be murdered when he stood for reelection to the tribunate.
Tiberius' brother Gaius was elected tribune in 123 BC. Gaius Gracchus' ultimate goal was to weaken the senate and to strengthen the democratic forces.[63] In the past, for example, the senate would eliminate political rivals either by establishing special judicial commissions or by passing a senatus consultum ultimum ("ultimate decree of the senate"). Both devices would allow the senate to bypass the ordinary due process rights that all citizens had.[64] Gaius outlawed the judicial commissions, and declared the senatus consultum ultimum to be unconstitutional. Gaius then proposed a law which would grant citizenship rights to Rome's Italian allies. By this point, however, the selfish democracy of Rome deserted him.[64] He stood for election to a third term in 121 BC, but was defeated and then murdered. The democracy, however, had finally realized how weak the senate had become.[64]
The populare party and the optimate party
In 118 BC, the king of the north-African city of Numidia died. The king, Micipsa, was survived by his two natural sons, Adherbal and Hiempsal, and by his adopted son, Jugurtha. Micipsa divided his kingdom between these three sons. Jugurtha, however, had both a ruthless personality and an open purse. It was both Jurgurtha's open purse, as well as the venality and incapacity of the Roman senate, that brought disgrace to the Roman name and defeat to the Roman arms.[65] Jugurtha defeated several Roman armies. He also bribed several Roman commanders, and at least two tribunes. Ultimate, a young legate named Gaius Marius was elected consul in 107 BC over the objections of the senate. Marius was of a politically unknown family, and brought the war to a quick end. The incompetence of the senate, and the brilliance of Marius, had also been put on full display.[66] The popular party took full advantage of this opportunity by allying itself with Marius.
Several years later, a new power had emerged in Asia. In 88 BC, a Roman army was sent to put down that power, king Mithridates of Pontus. The army, however, was defeated. One of Marius' old quaestors, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, had been elected consul for the year. Sulla was then ordered by the senate to assume command of the war against Mithridates. Marius, a member of the democratic ("populare") party, had a tribune revoke Sulla's command of the war against Mithridates. Sulla, a member of the aristocratic ("optimate") party, brought his army back to Italy and marched on Rome. Sulla had become so angry at Marius' tribune that he passed a law that was intended to permanently weaken the tribunate.[67] He then returned to his war against Mithridates. With Sulla gone, the populares under Marius and Lucius Cornelius Cinna soon took control of the city.
The populare record was not one to be proud of.[67] They had first elected Marius consul before he was even twenty years old, and then reelected him several times without observing the required ten year interval. They also transgressed democracy by advancing un-elected individuals to magisterial office, and by substituting magisterial edicts for popular legislation.[68] Sulla soon made peace with Mithridates. In 83 BC, he returned to Rome, overcame all resistance, and captured the city again. Sulla and his supporters then slaughtered most of Marius' supporters. Sulla, who had observed the violent results of radical populare reforms was naturally conservative.[68] As such, he sought to strengthen the aristocracy, and thus the senate.[68] Sulla retained his earlier reforms, which required senate approval before any bill could be submitted to the Concilium Plebis, and which had also restored the old Servian organization to the Comitia Centuriata.[67] Sulla then prohibited ex-tribunes from ever holding any other office.[69] He then reaffirmed the requirement that any individual wait for ten years before being reelected to any office. He also established definitively the cursus honorum.[69] The cursus honorum, which required an individual to reach a certain age and level of experience before running for any particular office, had never before been codified. Sulla died in 78 BC.
Pompey, Crassus, and the Catilinarian Conspiracy
In 77 BC, the senate sent one of Sulla's former lieutenants, Gnaeus Pompey Magnus, to put down an uprising in Spain. By 71 BC, Pompey returned to Rome after having completed his mission. Around the same time, another of Sulla's former lieutenants, Marcus Licinius Crassus, had just put down a slave revolt in Italy. Upon their return, Pompey and Crassus found the populare party fiercely attacking Sulla's constitution.[70] They attempted to forge an agreement with the populare party. If both Pompey and Crassus were elected consul in 70 BC, they would dismantle the more obnoxious components of Sulla's constitution.[71] The two were soon elected, and quickly dismantled most of Sulla's constitution.[71]
Around 66 BC, a movement to use constitutional, or at least peaceful, means to address the plight of various classes began.[72] After several failures, the movement's leaders decided to use any means that were necessary to accomplish their goals. The movement coalesced under an aristocrat named Lucius Sergius Catiline. The movement was based in the town of Faesulae, which was a natural hotbed of agrarian agitation.[73] The rural malcontents were to advance on Rome,[74] and be aided by an uprising within the city. After assassinating the consuls and most of the senators, Catiline would be free to enact his reforms. The conspiracy was set in motion in 63 BC. The consul, Marcus Tullius Cicero, intercepted messages that Catiline had sent in an attempt to recruit more members. The result of this was that the top conspirators in Rome were executed upon the authorization of the senate, and the planned uprising was disrupted. Cicero then sent an army, which cut Catiline's forces to pieces.
The most important result of the Catilinarian conspiracy was that the populare party became discredited.[74] The prior 70 years had witnessed a gradual erosion in senatorial powers. The violent nature of the conspiracy, in conjunction with the senate's skill in disrupting it, did a great deal to repair the senate's image.[74]
The First Triumvirate
In 62 BC, Pompey returned victorious from Asia. The senate, elated by its successes against Catiline,[75], refused to ratify the arrangements that Pompey had made. Pompey, in effect, became powerless. Thus, when Julius Caesar returned from his governorship in Spain in 61 BC, he found it easy to make an arrangement with Pompey.[75] Caesar and Pompey, along with Crassus, established a private agreement, known as the First Triumvirate. Under the agreement, Pompey's arrangements would be ratified. Caesar would be elected consul in 59 BC, and then serve as governor of Gaul for five years. Crassus would be promised a future consulship.[75]
Caesar became consul in 59 BC. His colleague, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, was an extreme aristocrat.[75] Caesar submitted the laws that he had promised Pompey to the assemblies. Bibulus attempted to obstruct the enactment of these laws, and so Caesar used violent means to ensure the passage of these laws.[75] Caesar was then made governor of three provinces. Caesar did not wish to leave the senate in the hands of such unskillful politicians as Pompey and Crassus before he had crushed the spirit of the senate and deprived it of its two most dangerous leaders, Cato and Cicero.[76] Therefore, he sent Cato on a mission to Cyprus, which was likely to ruin his reputation.[76] He then facilitated the election of the former patrician Clodius to the tribunate for 58 BC. Clodius was a dangerous demagogue, and a bitter opponent of Cicero.[76]
The end of the First Triumvirate
Pompey and Crassus proved themselves to be as incompetent as Caesar had hoped.[76] Clodius terrorized the city with his armed gangs. Eventually, the triumvirate was renewed. Pompey and Crassus were promised the consulship in 55 BC, and Caesar's term as governor was extended for five years. Caesar's daughter, and Pompey's wife, Julia, would then die in childbirth. This event severed the last remaining bound between Pompey and Caesar.
Beginning in the summer of 54 BC, a wave of political corruption and violence swept Rome.[77] This chaos reached a climax in January of 52 BC, when Clodius was murdered in a gang war. On January 1 of 49 BC, an agent of Caesar presented an ultimatum to the senate. The ultimatum was rejected, and the senate then passed a resolution which declared that if Caesar did not lay down his arms by July of that year, he would be considered an enemy of the republic.[78] On January 7 of 49 BC, the senate passed a senatus consultum ultimum, which vested Pompey with dictatorial powers. Pompey's army, however, was composed largely of untested conscripts. Caesar then crossed the Rubicon with his veteran army, and marched towards Rome. Caesar's rapid advance forced Pompey, the consuls and the senate to abandon Rome for Greece. Caesar then entered the city unopposed.
The period of transition (49-29 BC)
The era that began when Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon in 49 BC, and ended when Octavian returned to Rome after Actium in 29 BC, can be divided into two distinct units. The dividing line between these two units is the assassination of Caesar in March of 44 BC. However, from a constitutional standpoint, there was no clear dividing line between these two periods.[79] The constitutional evolution of the prior century accelerated through this era at a rapid pace. By 29 BC, Rome had completed its transition from being a city-state with a network of dependencies, to being the capital of a world empire.[79]
With Pompey defeated, and order restored, Caesar wanted to ensure that his control over the government was undisputed.[80] The powers which he would give himself would ultimately be used by his imperial successors.[80] He would assume these powers by increasing his own authority, and by decreasing the authority of Rome's other political institutions.
Caesar would hold both the dictatorship and the tribunate, but alternate between the consulship and the proconsulship.[80] In 48 BC, Caesar was given permanent tribunician powers.[81] This made his person sacrosanct. It also allowed him to veto the senate, and to dominate the Concilium Plebis. In 46 BC, Caesar created and held the title of praefectura morum. This title was new only in name. In effect, the functions of this office were identical to those of the censorship.[81] Thus, he could hold censorial powers, while technically not subjecting himself to the same checks that the ordinary censors were subject to. He used this power to fill the senate with his own partisans. Caesar then raised the membership of the senate to 900.[82] This robbed the senatorial aristocracy of its prestige, and made it increasingly subservient to him.[83] While the assemblies continued to meet, he submitted all candidates to the assemblies for election, and all bills to the assemblies for enactment. Thus, the assemblies became powerless, and were thus unable to oppose him.[83]
Near the end of his life, Caesar began to prepare for a war against the Parthian Empire. Since his absence from Rome would limit his ability to install his own consuls, he passed a law which allowed him to appoint all magistrates in 43 BC, and all consuls and tribunes in 42 BC.[82] This, in effect, transformed the magistrates from being representatives of the people, to being representatives of the dictator.[82]
Caesar's assassination and the Second Triumvirate
Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC. The motives of the conspirators were both personal, as well as political.[84] Most of the conspirators were senators, and many of them were angry about the fact that he had deprived the senate of much of its power and prestige.[84] The grievances that they held against him were vague.[84] As such, their plan against him was vague. The fact that their motives were vague, and that they had no idea of what to do after his assassination, both were plainly obvious by the subsequent course of events.[84]
After his assassination, Mark Antony would form an alliance with Caesar's adopted son and great-nephew, Gaius Octavian. Along with Marcus Lepidus, they would form an alliance known as the Second Triumvirate. They would hold powers that were nearly identical to the powers that Caesar had held under his constitution. As such, the senate and assemblies remained powerless, even after Caesar had been assassinated. The conspirators would be defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC. Eventually, however, Antony and Octavian would fight against each other in one last battle. Antony would be defeated in the naval Battle of Actium in 31 BC. In 30 BC, Antony would commit suicide. In 29 BC, Octavian would return to Rome, as the unchallenged master of the state.
Culture of the Roman Republic
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Main article: Culture of ancient Rome
Life in the Roman Republic revolved around the city of Rome, and its famed seven hills. The city also had several theaters, gymnasiums, and many taverns, baths and brothels. Throughout the territory under Rome's control, residential architecture ranged from very modest houses to country villas, and in the capital city of Rome, to the residences on the elegant Palatine Hill, from which the word "palace" is derived. The vast majority of the population lived in the city center, packed into insulae (apartment blocks).
The public spaces in Rome resounded with such a din of hooves and clatter of iron chariot wheels that Julius Caesar had once proposed a ban on chariot traffic at night. Historical estimates indicate that around 20 percent of the population under Roman jurisdiction lived in innumerable urban centers, a very high rate of urbanization by preindustrial standards. The most urbanized part of the republic was Italy. Most Roman towns and cities had a forum and temples and same type of buildings, on a smaller scale, as found in Rome. The large urban population required an endless supply of food which was a complex logistical task. Aqueducts were built to bring water to urban centers and wine and oil were imported from abroad.
There was a very large amount of commerce between the provinces since its transportation technology was very efficient. The average costs of transport and the technology were comparable with 18th century Europe. Landlords generally resided in cities and their estates were left in the care of farm managers. The plight of rural slaves was generally worse than their counterparts working in urban aristocratic households. To stimulate a higher labor productivity most landlords freed a large numbers of slaves and many received wages. Some
Starting in the middle of the second century BC, in every aspect of the private culture of the upper classes, Greek culture was increasingly in ascendancy, in spite of tirades against the "softening" effects of Hellenized culture. By the time of Augustus, cultured Greek household slaves taught the Roman young (sometimes even the girls); chefs, decorators, secretaries, doctors, and hairdressers—all came from the Greek East. Greek sculptures adorned Hellenistic landscape gardening on the Palatine or in the villas, or were imitated in Roman sculpture yards by Greek slaves. The Roman cuisine preserved in the cookery books ascribed to Apicius is essentially Greek. Roman writers disdained Latin for a cultured Greek style. Only in law and governance was the Italic nature of Rome's accretive culture supreme.
Social history and structure
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Main article: Social class in ancient Rome
Many aspects of Roman culture were taken from the ancient Greeks. In architecture and sculpture, the difference between Greek models and Roman paintings are apparent. The chief Roman contributions to architecture were the arch, and the dome it made possible. While much Roman sculpture was derivative of Greek models, and all deeply indebted to Greek techniques, the Roman character made portraiture the strongest and most original aspect of Roman sculpture. Rome has also had a tremendous impact on Western cultures following it. Its significance is perhaps best reflected in its endurance and influence, as is seen in the longevity and lasting importance of works of Virgil and Ovid. Latin, the Rome's primary language, remains used in religion, science, and law.
The center of the early social structure, dating from the time of the agricultural tribal city state, was the family, which was not only marked by blood relations but also by the legally constructed relation of patria potestas. The Pater familias was the absolute head of the family; he was the master over his wife, his children, the wives of his sons, the nephews, the slaves and the freedmen, disposing of them and of their goods at will, even putting them to death. Roman law recognized only patrician families as legal entities.
Slavery and slaves were part of the social order. There were slave markets where they could be bought and sold. Many slaves were freed by the masters for fine services rendered; some slaves could save money to buy their freedom. Generally mutilation and murder of slaves was prohibited by legislation although, outrageous cruelty continued. Apart from these families and the slaves, there were Plebeians that did not exist from a legal perspective. They had no legal capacity and were not able to make contracts.
Life in the cities revolved around the Forum, the central business district, where most of the Romans would go for marketing shopping, trading banking, and for participating in festivities and ceremonies. The Forum was also a place where orators would express themselves to mould public opinion, and elicit support for any particular issue of interest to him or others. Before sunrise, children would go to schools or tutoring them at home would commence. Life in the countryside was slow but lively, with numerous local festivals and social events. Farms were run by the farm managers, but estate owners would sometimes take a retreat to the countryside for rest, enjoying the splendor of the nature and the sunshine, including activities like fishing, hunting, and riding. The average farm owners were better off, spending evenings in economic and social interactions at the village markets. The day ended with a meal, generally left over from the noon time preparations.
Clothing and dining
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Main article: Roman cuisine
The cloth and the dress distinguished one class of people from the other class. The tunic worn by plebeians (common people) like shepherds and slaves was made from coarse and dark material, whereas the tunic worn by patricians was of linen or white wool. A magistrate would wear the tunic augusticlavi; senators wore a tunic with broad strips, called tunica laticlavi. Military tunics were shorter than the ones worn by civilians. The many types of togas were also named. Boys, up until the festival of Liberalia, wore the toga praetexta, which was a toga with a crimson or purple border. The toga virilis, (or toga pura) or mans toga was worn by men over the age of 16 to signify their citizenship in Rome. The toga picta was worn by triumphant generals and had embroidery of their skill on the battlefield. The toga pulla was worn when in mourning.
Even footwear indicated a person’s social status. Patricians wore red and orange sandals, senators had brown footwear, consuls had white shoes, and soldiers wore heavy boots. Women wore closed shoes of colors like white, yellow or green. The bulla was a locket-like amulet worn by children. When about to marry, the woman would donate her bulla to the household gods, along with her toys to signify maturity and womanhood. Men typically wore a toga, and women a stola. The woman's stola looked different than a toga, and was usually bright colored. A fibula (or brooch) would be used as ornamentation or to hold the stola in place. A palla, or shawl also accessorized a Roman woman.
Romans had very simple food habits. Staple food was simple, generally consumed at around 11 o’clock, and consisted of bread, salad, olives, cheese, fruits, nuts, and cold meat left over from the dinner the night before. Breakfast was called ientaculum, lunch was prandium, and dinner was called cena. Appetizers were called gustatio, and desert was called secunda mensa Usually, a nap or rest followed this. The family ate together, sitting on stools around a table. Later on, a separate dining room with dining couches was designed, called a triclinium. Fingers were used to take foods which was prepared to be handled with fingers beforehand and spoons were used for soups.
Wine was considered a staple drink, consumed at all meals and occasions by all classes and was quite cheap. Many types of drinks involving grapes and honey were consumed, as well. Mulsum was honeyed wine, mustum was grape juice, mulsa was honeyed water. Even the notoriously strict Cato the Elder recommended distributing a daily ration of wine among the slaves forced to work on farms. Drinking nonwatered wine (called mulsum) or on an empty stomach was regarded as boorish and a sure sign for alcoholism whose debilitating physical and psychological effects were known to the Romans. An accurate accusation of being an alcoholic was a favorite and damaging way to discredit political rivals. Prominent Roman alcoholics include Mark Antony, and Cicero's own son Marcus (Cicero Minor). Even Cato the Younger was known to be a heavy drinker.
Education and language
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Main articles: Roman school and Latin
Before regular schooling systems evolved in ancient Rome, home was the learning center, where children were taught Roman law, customs, and physical training to prepare the boys to grow as Roman citizens and for eventual recruitment into the army. Conforming to discipline was a point of great emphasis. Girls generally received instruction from their mothers in the art of spinning, weaving ,and sewing.
Schooling in a more formal sense was begun around 200 BC. Education began at the age of around six, and in the next six to seven years, boys and girls were expected to learn the basics of reading, writing and counting. By the age of twelve, they would be learning Latin, Greek, grammar and literature, followed by training for public speaking. Oratory was an art to be practiced and learnt and good orators commanded respect; to become an effective orator was one of the objectives of education and learning. Poor children could not afford education. In some cases, services of gifted slaves were utilized for imparting education.
The native language of the Romans was Latin. An inflectional and synthetic language, Latin relies little on word order, conveying meaning through a system of affixes attached to word stems. Its alphabet, the Latin alphabet, is based on the Old Italic alphabet, which is in turn derived from the Greek alphabet. Although surviving Latin literature consists almost entirely of Classical Latin, an artificial and highly stylized and polished literary language from the 1st century BC, the actual spoken language was Vulgar Latin, which significantly differed from Classical Latin in grammar, vocabulary, and eventually pronunciation. Greek came to be the language spoken by the well-educated elite.
Rome's expansion spread Latin throughout Europe, and over time Vulgar Latin evolved and dialectized in different locations, gradually shifting into a number of distinct Romance languages. Many of these languages, including French, Italian, and Spanish, flourished, the differences between them growing greater over time. Although English is Germanic rather than Romanic in origin, English borrows heavily from Latin and Latin-derived words.
The arts
Roman literature was from its very inception influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest works we possess are of historical epics telling the early military history of Rome. As the republic expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy. Virgil represents the pinnacle of Roman epic poetry. His Aeneid was produced at the request of Maecenas and tells the story of flight of Aeneas from Troy and his settlement of the city that would become Rome. Lucretius, in his On the Nature of Things, attempted to explicate science in an epic poem. Some of his science seems remarkably modern, but other ideas, especially his theory of light, are no longer accepted. Catullus and the associated group of neoteric poets produced poetry following the Alexandrian model, which experimented with poetic forms challenging tradition. Catullus was also the first Roman poet to produce love poetry, seemingly autobiographical, which depicts an affair with a woman called Lesbia.
The genre of satire was traditionally regarded as a Roman innovation, and satires were written by, among others, Juvenal and Persius. Some of the most popular plays of the early Republic were comedies, especially those of Terence, a freed Roman slave captured during the First Punic War. A great deal of the literary work produced by Roman authors in the early Republic was political or satirical in nature. The rhetorical works of Cicero, in particular, were popular. In addition, Cicero's personal letters are considered to be one of the best bodies of correspondence recorded in antiquity.
Most early Roman painting styles show Etruscan influences, particularly in the practice of political painting. In the 3rd century BC, Greek art taken as booty from wars became popular, and many Roman homes were decorated with landscapes by Greek artists. An early Roman style of note was "Incrustation", in which the interior walls of houses were painted to resemble colored marble. Another style consisted of painting interiors as open landscapes, with highly detailed scenes of plants, animals, and buildings. Portrait sculpture during the period utilized youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism. Advancements were also made in relief sculptures, usually depicting Roman victories.
Music was a major part of everyday life. Many private and public events were accompanied by music, ranging from nightly dining to military parades and maneouvres. In a discussion of any ancient music, however, non-specialists and even many musicians have to be reminded that much of what makes our modern music familiar to us is the result of developments only within the last 1000 years; thus, our ideas of melody, scales, harmony, and even the instruments we use would not be familiar to Romans who made and listened to music many centuries earlier.
In initial stages, the ancient Roman architecture reflected elements of architectural styles of the Etruscans and the Greeks. Over a period of time, the style was modified in tune with their urban requirements, and the civil engineering and building construction technology became developed and refined. The Roman concrete has remained a riddle, and even after more than 2000 years some of ancient Roman structures still stand magnificently. The architectural style of the capital city of ancient Rome was emulated by other urban centers under Roman control and influence. Roman cities were well planned, efficiently managed and neatly maintained. Palaces, private dwellings and villas, were elaborately designed and town planning was comprehensive with provisions for different activities by the urban resident population, and for countless migratory population of travelers, traders and visitors passing through their cities. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, a 1st century BC Roman architect’s treatise “De architectura”, with various sections, dealing with urban planning, building materials, temple construction, public and private buildings, and hydraulics, remained a classic text until the Renaissance.